Did Romans Eat Dairy? The Surprising Truth

January 14, 2026 •

3 min read

According to the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, butter was considered the "choicest food among barbarian tribes," reflecting a widespread Roman prejudice against certain dairy products. The question, 'Did Romans eat dairy?' reveals a complex story, distinguishing between their love for aged cheeses and their surprising disdain for fresh milk and butter.

Quick Summary

The Romans regularly ate cheese, which was a staple for all social classes and the military. However, they typically avoided drinking fresh milk and considered butter an uncivilized food of northern barbarians, preferring olive oil instead. Archaeological and historical evidence confirms dairy was consumed but primarily in its processed forms like cheese.

Key Points

Cheese was a dietary staple: Romans of all social classes and soldiers ate a variety of cheeses, both fresh and aged.
Milk drinking was considered barbaric: The Roman elite viewed drinking fresh milk as a low-status habit of rural peasants and northern tribes.
Olive oil was preferred over butter: Butter was disdained as an uncivilized foodstuff, used only for medicinal purposes, while olive oil was the primary cooking fat.
Archaeological evidence confirms cheesemaking: Excavations have found whey strainers and pottery with milk residues, proving cheese production was a common practice.
Sheep and goat milk were most common: Due to their suitability for the Mediterranean climate, sheep and goats were the primary dairy animals.
Techniques for preservation were advanced: Romans mastered cheesemaking to preserve milk and create a durable, tradeable food source.
Literary sources describe dairy farming: Roman agricultural writers documented cheese production methods and the use of different animal milks.

Cheese: A Staple of the Roman Diet

Unlike their view on other dairy products, the Romans embraced cheese, or caseus, as a central part of their diet. It was widely consumed by everyone from the wealthiest citizens at elaborate banquets to the legionary soldiers on campaign. Its longevity and portability made it an ideal food for storage and transport across the vast empire. Roman authors like Columella and Pliny the Elder wrote extensively about the art of cheesemaking, detailing various techniques and the different types of milk used.

The most common milk sources were sheep and goats, which were better suited for the warm Mediterranean climate and were easier to transport. However, cow's milk was also used. A wide variety of cheeses were produced, including fresh, soft cheeses, hard-aged cheeses, and even smoked varieties. Pecorino Romano, a hard sheep's milk cheese still made today, is a direct descendant of the cheese eaten by Roman soldiers and nobles.

Types of Roman Cheese

Fresh Cheeses: These had a high moisture content and were meant to be consumed quickly, similar to modern ricotta or cottage cheese. Pliny noted that some of the best fresh cheeses came from the area near modern-day Nîmes in Gaul.
Aged Cheeses: Hard, aged cheeses like Pecorino Romano were prized for their long shelf life and robust flavor. They could be grated or eaten in chunks, providing a high-energy food source for soldiers.
Smoked Cheeses: Smoking was a common preservation technique that also added flavor. Smoked goat's milk cheese from the Velabrum valley near the Roman Forum was particularly popular.

The Roman Disdain for Milk and Butter

In stark contrast to their appreciation for cheese, Romans generally regarded drinking fresh milk as uncivilized. They associated milk consumption with rural peasants and the "barbarian" tribes to their north, such as the Celts and Germans. In the absence of refrigeration, fresh milk spoiled quickly, and the sophisticated Roman elite preferred wine and water as their beverages. For cooking, they relied on olive oil, which was readily available, longer-lasting, and culturally superior in their eyes.

Butter was viewed with similar disdain. Romans considered it a coarse, northern food, suitable only for medicinal or cosmetic purposes, like treating burns. Pliny the Elder famously articulated this view, and historical accounts note the Roman contempt for the butter-eating habits of their neighbors.

Dairy Use in Roman Society: A Comparative Table


Dairy Product	Status in Roman Cuisine	Use in Roman Society	Cultural Perception
Cheese	Staple food, widely available	Eaten by all social classes, including soldiers; used in cooking	Civilized, sophisticated foodstuff; essential for survival and trade
Milk (Fresh)	Generally avoided as a beverage	Used medicinally, cosmetically, and in cooking; limited consumption in rural areas	Low-status food, associated with peasants and children; spoiled quickly
Butter	Generally avoided as a food	Used as an ointment or in medicinal remedies; olive oil was the preferred fat for cooking	Uncivilized, associated with northern "barbarian" tribes

Archaeological and Literary Evidence

The existence of Roman dairying practices is confirmed by both archaeological findings and contemporary texts. Excavations have uncovered ceramic whey strainers, particularly in Roman Britain, which provide tangible evidence of cheese production. Chemical analysis of ancient pottery has also detected milk lipids, confirming their use for processing dairy.

Roman agricultural treatises, such as Columella's De Re Rustica and Cato the Elder's De Agri Cultura, provide detailed instructions for cheesemaking and animal husbandry, including the use of rennet. These sources also mention the types of animals kept for dairy, including sheep, goats, and cows. Literary references further confirm the role of dairy products, including accounts of soldiers' rations containing cheese.

Conclusion: More than Just Olive Oil and Wine

While the image of Roman cuisine often focuses on olive oil and wine, dairy, in the form of cheese, played a crucial and sophisticated role in their diet. The Romans successfully transformed perishable milk into a valuable, transportable, and long-lasting food source. Their selective relationship with dairy—embracing cheese while shunning milk as a drink and butter as a fat—highlights the complex interplay of cultural prejudices, technological limitations, and agricultural necessity that shaped the ancient Roman pantry. The evidence from written records and archaeological digs provides a clear picture of a society that consumed dairy, but in a very particular and culturally significant way.

UNRV.com has a detailed article on Roman food, including their use of cheese.

Frequently Asked Questions

No, ancient Romans did not typically drink fresh milk. It was associated with rural, lower-class diets and considered uncivilized by the elite. Fresh milk spoiled quickly in the warm climate without modern refrigeration.

Butter was not a common part of the Roman diet for cooking. Romans viewed it as a crude, barbarian food and preferred olive oil. Butter was occasionally used for medicinal or cosmetic purposes.

Romans ate a wide variety of cheeses, from fresh, soft cheeses to hard, aged and smoked varieties. Cheeses were made from the milk of sheep, goats, and cows.

Yes, Roman soldiers were regularly given cheese as part of their rations. Its durability and high nutritional value made it an essential and practical food for the army.

Yes, cow's milk was used, but sheep's and goat's milk were more common, especially in the Mediterranean region. Roman farmers utilized milk from various animals for cheesemaking.

Roman cheesemaking involved curdling milk with rennet or other coagulants, pressing the curds to remove whey, salting, and aging. These techniques are documented by Roman agricultural writers.

Romans disliked drinking milk for a few reasons, including its easy spoilage in warm climates, their association of it with lower social classes and northern tribes, and a potential prevalence of lactose intolerance among the population.