How did they combat scurvy?

January 13, 2026 •

3 min read

More sailors died from scurvy than in battle during the 18th century, a fact that underscored the disease's devastating impact. This terrible ailment, caused by vitamin C deficiency, spurred centuries of human ingenuity as people desperately sought to understand and combat scurvy with often-bizarre and sometimes effective remedies.

Quick Summary

An examination of historical efforts to prevent and treat scurvy, covering James Lind's groundbreaking 1747 clinical trial, the slow adoption of citrus by navies, and the eventual scientific identification of vitamin C.

Key Points

James Lind's Clinical Trial: A British naval surgeon conducted one of the first controlled trials in 1747, demonstrating that citrus fruits were the most effective treatment for scurvy.
Citrus Fruits and Vitamin C: The active ingredient in citrus fruits, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), was the key to curing and preventing scurvy, although its existence wasn't known until the 20th century.
Slow Naval Adoption: Despite Lind's findings, the British Royal Navy took over 40 years to widely adopt a daily citrus ration, due to institutional inertia, cost, and confusion over proper preservation.
Native and Explorer Remedies: Various groups successfully combated scurvy using other vitamin C sources, such as indigenous tribes using pine needle tea and Arctic explorers consuming fresh seal meat.
Modern Scurvy: While rare in most developed countries today, scurvy still occurs in vulnerable populations like the malnourished, alcoholics, or those with restrictive diets.
Effective Treatment: Modern treatment involves vitamin C supplements and dietary changes, with symptoms often improving within days of starting therapy.

Scurvy's Devastating Impact on Historical Expeditions

For centuries, scurvy was a maritime plague, killing millions of sailors on long voyages where fresh food was scarce. Sailors' diets, typically lacking fresh produce, offered little protection against this vitamin C deficiency. Symptoms included bleeding gums, joint pain, and weakness. Many ineffective remedies were tried before the cause was understood.

Early Observations and Indigenous Knowledge

Before modern medicine, some cultures found effective remedies. In 1536, the Iroquoians taught explorer Jacques Cartier's crew to use a tea from aneda tree needles to cure scurvy. Inuit knowledge also showed Arctic explorers that raw organ meat prevented scurvy. However, this knowledge was not widely adopted.

The Landmark Experiment of James Lind

A pivotal moment came in 1747 when Scottish naval surgeon James Lind conducted a controlled clinical trial aboard HMS Salisbury. He tested various treatments on 12 scurvy-afflicted sailors.

Lind’s Treatments:

Hard cider
Elixir of vitriol
Vinegar
Seawater
Two oranges and one lemon
A medicinal paste

The citrus treatment led to rapid recovery. Despite this clear result, Lind's findings were not immediately accepted.

The Royal Navy's Slow Embrace of Citrus

The British Admiralty took nearly 50 years to mandate lemon juice distribution.

Why the delay occurred:

Prevailing Theories: Belief in other causes for scurvy persisted.
Confusion over Preservation: Lind's own experiments with boiled juice, which destroyed vitamin C, caused doubt.
Supply Issues: The switch to less potent limes and poor preservation methods reduced effectiveness. This led to the term 'limey'.
Cost and Logistics: Supplying fresh fruit was deemed impractical and expensive.

Other Effective and Ineffective Historical Remedies

Beyond citrus, other methods were used.

Traditional Antiscorbutic Foods

Sauerkraut: Captain James Cook used sauerkraut to prevent scurvy.
Spruce Beer: Provided vitamin C and was used by some explorers.
Potatoes: Helped combat scurvy on land.

Comparison of Scurvy Remedies: Fact vs. Fiction


Remedy	Mechanism	Effectiveness	Result
Oranges & Lemons	Rich in Vitamin C	Very Effective	Rapid symptom reversal.
Cider	Minor Vitamin C	Mildly Effective	Slight improvement.
Elixir of Vitriol	Acidic, no vitamin C	Ineffective	Based on flawed theories.
Spruce Beer	Vitamin C from needles	Effective	Used by explorers.
Boiled Citrus 'Rob'	Heat-destroyed Vitamin C	Ineffective	Boiling removed beneficial vitamin C.
Sauerkraut	Fermented cabbage, rich in Vitamin C	Effective	Used by Captain Cook.

The Scientific Conquest of Scurvy

The 20th century brought scientific understanding. Albert Szent-Györgyi isolated hexuronic acid in 1928, later confirmed as the 'antiscorbutic agent' by Charles Glen King. Renamed ascorbic acid (Vitamin C), it was synthesized, providing a modern cure and prevention.

Modern Context: Scurvy Today

Though rare in many places, scurvy still affects vulnerable groups, including those with restrictive diets, alcoholism, or malabsorption issues. Vitamin C supplements are highly effective, often showing improvement within 24-48 hours.

Conclusion: Lessons from the Past

The fight against scurvy highlights the value of observation and the challenges of changing medical views. From indigenous remedies to Lind's trial and vitamin C's discovery, it shows resilience and scientific progress. The history reminds us that proper nutrition is crucial, and ancient diseases can reappear. For more on naval hygiene and Lind, see the Royal Museums Greenwich article.

Frequently Asked Questions

The main cause of scurvy is a prolonged and severe deficiency of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in the diet, which prevents the body from producing collagen.

James Lind was a Scottish naval surgeon who, in 1747, conducted a famous controlled experiment that proved citrus fruits could cure scurvy. His work was foundational in naval medicine, though its widespread adoption was delayed.

It took decades because the naval medical establishment prioritized flawed theories over anecdotal evidence, was concerned about the cost, and was confused by faulty preparation methods like boiling, which destroyed vitamin C.

Captain James Cook famously prevented scurvy by enforcing strict shipboard hygiene, ensuring his crew consumed fresh food when possible, and mandating the consumption of sauerkraut, a vitamin C source.

The term 'limey' was coined for British sailors after the Royal Navy began issuing limes, often less effective than lemons due to their lower vitamin C content and poor preservation, to prevent scurvy.

Yes, although rare in most developed countries, scurvy still occurs in vulnerable populations, including people with restrictive diets, alcohol abuse, or poor nutrient absorption due to other illnesses.

Modern treatment is simple and effective, involving a course of oral or intravenous vitamin C supplements. This is combined with dietary changes to include more fruits and vegetables.