The Indian Subcontinent: Epicenter of Ancient Vegetarianism
The Indian subcontinent is a historical stronghold of vegetarianism, with traditions rooted deeply in the concepts of non-violence (ahimsa). While the entire civilization was never strictly vegetarian, significant and influential segments of the population have long adhered to meat-free diets for spiritual and ethical reasons.
Jainism: The Strict Ahimsa Diet
Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions, is perhaps the most well-known ancient civilization with mandatory and strict vegetarianism for its followers. The cornerstone of the Jain diet is the principle of ahimsa, which demands minimizing harm to all living beings, no matter how small. This goes far beyond simply abstaining from meat and includes specific restrictions on other foods:
- Exclusion of root vegetables: Jains do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes, onions, garlic, carrots, and radishes. This is because uprooting them kills the entire plant and risks harming the microorganisms living in the soil.
- Rejection of fermentation: Some fermented foods are avoided due to the killing of microorganisms involved in the process.
- No honey: Collecting honey is considered violence against bees.
- Eating before sunset: Eating at night is discouraged to avoid accidentally consuming insects attracted to light.
Buddhism and the Path of Compassion
Within Buddhism, the views on vegetarianism have varied among different schools over time. Mahayana Buddhism, particularly in East Asia, strongly emphasizes vegetarianism based on the idea of compassion for all sentient beings. Some Mahayana sutras, like the Lankavatara Sutra, explicitly condemn meat-eating. However, early Theravada traditions sometimes permitted monks to eat meat if it was offered as alms and the animal was not killed specifically for them. Indian emperor Ashoka, a devoted Buddhist, famously propagated vegetarianism through his edicts around 257 BCE, prohibiting animal sacrifices and reducing meat consumption in his royal kitchens.
Hinduism and Sattvic Traditions
Certain groups within Hinduism, particularly the Brahmin castes, have historically embraced vegetarianism as part of the sattvic (pure) diet, which is believed to promote spiritual clarity. The Hindu principle of ahimsa, similar to Jainism, promotes non-violence and extends to animals, especially the sacred cow. While meat consumption has existed in parts of India, the vegetarian traditions of significant Hindu groups contributed to the subcontinent having a higher prevalence of vegetarianism than many other ancient cultures.
Ancient Greece: The Pythagorean Way of Life
In the Western world, the earliest reliable evidence for the practice of vegetarianism traces back to ancient Greece in the 6th century BCE, most famously associated with the philosopher Pythagoras.
The Philosophical Roots of Meat Abstinence
Pythagoras and his followers, known as Pythagoreans, adopted a meat-free diet due to a belief in the transmigration of souls, or reincarnation. He argued that a human soul could be reborn into an animal, making the consumption of meat a form of cannibalism. This philosophical diet was known as the "Pythagorean diet" until the 1800s, influencing later thinkers like Empedocles and the Neoplatonists Porphyry and Plotinus. Porphyry's treatise On Abstinence from Eating Animals made ethical arguments for vegetarianism, citing animal rationality and the link between meat-eating and violence.
Japan's Historical Vegetarian Practices
While not exclusively vegetarian, ancient Japan had a long-standing tradition of vegetarian-style eating, particularly among Buddhist monks and during certain periods of imperial edicts.
Imperial Edits and Religious Influence
In 675 CE, Emperor Tenmu issued an edict banning the consumption of meat from certain animals during the farming season, influenced by both Buddhism and Shinto beliefs regarding purity. This led to the development of shōjin-ryōri, a Buddhist vegetarian cuisine that became widespread, especially in monasteries. The ban on meat was lifted during the Meiji Restoration in the 19th century, but the tradition had a significant cultural impact.
A Comparison of Ancient Vegetarian Practices
| Feature | Jainism | Pythagoreanism | Japanese Tradition (Pre-Meiji) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary Motivation | Ahimsa (non-violence) as a core religious duty | Philosophical belief in transmigration of souls | Buddhist/Shinto beliefs in compassion and ritual purity |
| Dietary Strictness | Mandatory lacto-vegetarian, avoids root vegetables, honey | Adherence varied; typically excluded meat, some rejected all legumes | Widespread practice but bans on meat were temporary and varied historically |
| Influence on Society | Shaped regional cuisine in areas with strong Jain presence | Influenced later Western philosophers; legacy of a thoughtful diet | Resulted in the development of shōjin-ryōri cuisine |
| Modern Continuity | Still widely practiced today by Jains globally | Disappeared in Europe for centuries, revived in the Renaissance | Ban lifted in 1872, but vegetarian cuisine persists |
The Wider Context: Why most ancient societies were not vegetarian
It is important to note that entire ancient civilizations were not vegetarian. For the vast majority of people throughout history, diet was dictated by geography, climate, and social status. In many ancient cultures, meat and animal products were viewed as a source of prestige, sustenance, and necessary calories, particularly during cold seasons or for certain jobs.
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Ancient Egypt, for example, was heavily reliant on agriculture from the fertile Nile Valley, meaning the diet of commoners was largely plant-based, featuring bread, beer, vegetables, and fish. However, meat, especially beef and poultry, was a luxury for the wealthy elite and played a significant role in religious offerings and feasting. Tombs depict scenes of lavish feasting and butchering, confirming its place in upper-class life.
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Hunter-gatherer societies and early hominins like Neanderthals relied heavily on meat, a departure from their earlier, more plant-based ancestors. Archaeological evidence of butchered animal remains demonstrates the importance of hunting to their survival.
Therefore, while vegetarianism existed, it was almost always confined to specific, ideologically driven groups within larger, omnivorous societies. The reasons were not driven by universal health or environmental concerns, but by deeply held philosophical, ethical, or spiritual beliefs.
Conclusion
While no major ancient civilization was universally vegetarian, specific influential groups and movements certainly were. The ethical and philosophical arguments for abstaining from meat are not a modern invention but have deep roots in antiquity, particularly in the Indian subcontinent with Jainism and Buddhism, and in the Western world through the Pythagorean school. These examples demonstrate that diet has long been intertwined with moral and spiritual beliefs, predating the modern ethical, health, and environmental reasons for adopting a plant-based lifestyle. These ancient traditions offer a fascinating glimpse into the historical roots of a dietary practice that has evolved over millennia. For more on the global history of vegetarianism, Britannica provides an extensive overview.
