Saccharin: The Accidental Sweetener
Discovered in 1879 by chemist Constantin Fahlberg at Johns Hopkins University, saccharin's sweet taste was famously found when he accidentally tasted a compound on his hand after working with coal tar derivatives. Originally a product for diabetics, saccharin's use exploded during sugar shortages in World War I, making it a household name. It was approximately 300 to 500 times sweeter than sucrose (table sugar) and became a staple in diet products for decades. Despite its long history, saccharin was no stranger to controversy.
In the early 20th century, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) debated its safety, but President Theodore Roosevelt, a user himself, defended it. However, animal studies in the 1970s linking high doses of saccharin to bladder cancer in rats led to a mandated warning label on products containing it in the United States. Further research later clarified that the mechanism for cancer formation in male rats did not apply to humans due to physiological differences, and the warning label was repealed in 2000. Saccharin, most notably found in the pink packets of Sweet'N Low, endures despite its sometimes bitter aftertaste.
Cyclamate: The Rise and Fall in the U.S.
Another key player in the pre-aspartame era was cyclamate, discovered in 1937 by a University of Illinois graduate student working on a fever drug. Like saccharin, the sweet taste was a serendipitous discovery made by touching a sweet-tasting chemical. At 30 to 50 times sweeter than sugar, cyclamate quickly gained popularity, especially in the booming diet soda market of the 1950s and 60s. For a time, it was blended with saccharin to mask the latter's off-flavor.
By 1969, however, the American market for cyclamate ended abruptly when FDA animal studies indicated it might cause bladder cancer in rats. The subsequent ban on cyclamate remains in effect in the United States, though many other countries, including Canada and parts of Europe, have since re-evaluated its safety and allow its use. The ban of cyclamate created a major shift, forcing many manufacturers to switch back to saccharin until a new alternative could be found.
The Arrival of Aspartame and a New Sweetener Era
The discovery of aspartame in 1965 by a G.D. Searle and Company chemist followed the familiar pattern of accidental tasting. Aspartame offered a clean, sugar-like taste without the bitter aftertaste of saccharin, and with 200 times the sweetness of sugar. After regulatory hurdles and safety reviews, aspartame finally received broad FDA approval in 1981 and was marketed under brand names like NutraSweet and Equal. Its arrival signaled a new era, with many diet products reformulating to use the new compound, often displacing older options.
Other Early Sugar Substitutes and Natural Options
Beyond the major synthetic players, other early sweeteners and sugar alternatives existed, though some saw more limited use.
- Sugar Alcohols: Compounds like sorbitol and xylitol have been used as sweeteners and bulking agents for decades. They are less sweet than sugar and provide fewer calories, but can cause digestive issues in large quantities.
- Stevia: While its modern commercialization post-dates aspartame's rise, the Stevia rebaudiana plant has been used as a natural sweetener for centuries in South America. Its complex history with regulatory agencies in the U.S. meant widespread adoption as a manufactured sweetener occurred much later.
Comparing Early Sweeteners: Saccharin, Cyclamate, and Aspartame
| Feature | Saccharin | Cyclamate | Aspartame |
|---|---|---|---|
| Discovery Year | 1879 | 1937 | 1965 |
| Sweetness (vs. Sugar) | ~300-500x | ~30-50x | ~200x |
| Availability (U.S.) | Currently Approved | Banned (since 1969) | Currently Approved |
| Aftertaste | Metallic/Bitter | Mildly Sweet | None |
| Heat Stability | Not heat-stable for baking | Heat-stable | Not heat-stable |
The Changing Sweetener Landscape
The history of early non-caloric sweeteners reflects an ongoing search for sweet alternatives that satisfy both consumer taste and safety expectations. The journey from the accidental discoveries of saccharin and cyclamate through periods of controversy, to the eventual mainstreaming of alternatives like aspartame, demonstrates the dynamic relationship between food science, public perception, and regulatory policy. While newer sweeteners have since emerged, the early history of saccharin and cyclamate is foundational to understanding the modern market for low-calorie and sugar-free products. The debate over the health effects of sugar substitutes continues, but the foundational discoveries that preceded aspartame set the stage for all that followed.
For additional information on the history and controversy surrounding artificial sweeteners, you can refer to the Science History Institute.
