From Hunters to Herders: The First Milking
For a vast majority of human history, animal milk was not a part of the adult diet. The story of when humans started drinking cow's milk is deeply linked to the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agriculture and the domestication of animals. Around 10,500 years ago, cattle, descended from wild aurochs, were first domesticated in the Near East for meat, hides, and as beasts of burden. This was the critical first step that made dairying possible.
The Earliest Evidence of Dairy
It wasn't long after domestication that early farmers began to explore the potential of their herds beyond meat. Archaeological evidence shows that the first exploitation of animal milk happened much earlier than the ability to drink it fresh. By analyzing residual fats left on ancient pottery, scientists have pinpointed evidence of milk processing as early as the 7th millennium BCE (around 9,000 years ago) in northwestern Anatolia, which is modern-day Turkey. This suggests a deliberate effort to utilize milk as a constant food source to supplement seasonal crops.
The Problem of Lactose Intolerance
Before the evolution of certain genetic traits, most adult humans were lactose intolerant. After infancy, the body ceases to produce the enzyme lactase, which is needed to digest lactose, the sugar found in milk. For early Neolithic people, drinking unfermented milk would have caused digestive upset and illness. The solution, born of human ingenuity, was to process the milk into fermented products like cheese, yogurt, and butter. This fermentation process significantly reduces the lactose content, making dairy digestible even for those without the lactase persistence gene. Archaeological finds of specialized pots with milk lipid residues that show signs of being heated support this hypothesis.
The Evolution of Lactose Tolerance
Around 7,000 to 8,000 years ago, a pivotal moment occurred in human evolution. In Western Asia, a genetic mutation for lactase persistence emerged, allowing some individuals to produce lactase into adulthood. This mutation proved to be a major evolutionary advantage. A constant, nutritious food source like milk was invaluable, especially during times of famine or when crops failed. The gene spread rapidly through populations in Northern Europe, where milk also offered a vital source of vitamin D in regions with little sunlight.
Independent of this European development, similar genetic adaptations for lactase persistence also arose in different pastoralist populations, notably in parts of Africa and the Middle East. This is a classic example of co-evolution, where a cultural practice (dairying) drove a biological adaptation (lactose tolerance).
The Archaeological Evidence for Dairying
To piece together this ancient history, scientists rely on several key types of evidence:
- Lipid Residue Analysis: Pioneered by scientists like Richard Evershed, this technique involves analyzing fatty acids absorbed into the porous clay of ancient pottery. By measuring stable isotope ratios, researchers can determine whether the fats came from dairy animals or meat.
- Dental Calculus Analysis: Dental calculus (plaque) can preserve dietary proteins, including milk proteins like beta-lactoglobulin (BLG), for millennia. Analysis of ancient tooth plaque provides direct evidence of an individual's milk consumption.
- Faunal Kill-off Profiles: Archaeologists examine the age and sex distribution of animal bones at sites. A high ratio of female animal remains suggests a managed herd used for dairying, as males would have been culled earlier.
- Genetic Studies: Modern and ancient DNA analysis reveals the frequency and spread of the lactase persistence gene in human populations, allowing for a timeline of milk tolerance.
A Global Spread and Cultural Impact
From its origins in the Near East and Europe, dairying spread globally, carried by both migrating farmers and cultural exchange. In regions like the Eurasian steppe, nomadic pastoralism and dairy became a way of life, fueling the expansion of various empires. The specific animals milked varied by region, from yaks and horses in Central Asia to camels in North Africa.
| Event | Time Period | Location | Evidence | Implications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cattle Domestication | ~10,500 years ago | Near East | Archaeological remains of early aurochs | Prerequisite for dairying practices |
| First Milk Product Use | ~9,000 years ago | Anatolia (Modern Turkey) | Dairy fat residues on pottery | Early humans processed milk into cheese/yogurt for sustenance |
| Earliest Lactase Persistence | ~7,000-8,000 years ago | Western Asia / Europe | Genetic analysis of ancient populations | Beginning of fresh milk drinking for some adults |
| Dairying in Africa | ~7,000 years ago | Libyan Sahara | Milk fat residues on pottery | Independent development of dairy practices |
| Widespread Tolerance in Europe | ~2,000-3,000 years ago | Northern Europe | Increased frequency of lactase persistence gene | Genetic mutation provides a significant dietary advantage |
| Direct Milk Evidence | ~6,000 years ago | Britain | Milk proteins in ancient dental calculus | Confirmation of dairy consumption by Neolithic individuals |
The Ongoing Story of Milk
The journey of humans drinking cow's milk and other dairy products is a story of adaptation, innovation, and co-evolution. It demonstrates how a simple change in lifestyle—the domestication of animals—can trigger major biological and cultural shifts. While the modern world offers pasteurized, homogenized milk in every supermarket, the foundations of this global food staple were laid by ingenious Neolithic farmers centuries before genetic evolution made it a common dietary practice for a portion of the population.
To learn more about the scientific methods used to uncover our ancient diets, you can consult research articles on archaeological chemistry, such as those found on the website for the University of York's Department of Archaeology.
