Grains, Bread, and Daily Staples
Grain products were the primary source of nutrition for most people in biblical times, forming 50-70% of their daily caloric intake. Bread, often referred to simply as "food" (lehem), was consumed at almost every meal. Barley was the most common grain, especially for the poor, as it was more rugged and matured earlier than wheat. Wheat bread, considered a luxury, became more prevalent among the populace later during the Second Temple period.
The process of making bread was a daily and labor-intensive task for women, involving grinding grain with millstones and baking the dough on hot stones or in clay ovens. The resulting bread was often a thin, flat, unleavened loaf, which was soft and pliable, used for dipping into sauces and stews. In contrast, the Romans later introduced larger ovens capable of producing thicker loaves.
Legumes and Vegetables
Legumes, including lentils, broad beans, and chickpeas, were a major protein source for the average Israelite, since meat was a rarity. Pottage, a thick soup or stew made from lentils or beans flavored with onions, garlic, and herbs, was a common meal. The story of Esau selling his birthright for lentil pottage highlights the food's importance (Genesis 25:29-34). While mentioned less frequently in scripture, vegetables like onions, garlic, leeks, and melons were also part of the diet. Many were eaten seasonally, as they were difficult to preserve.
Fruits, Sweeteners, and Oil
Fruits were a vital part of the biblical diet, eaten fresh, dried, or processed. The "Seven Species" of the land mentioned in Deuteronomy 8:8 included wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. These seven foods were central to ancient Israel's diet, economy, and worship.
Grapes were primarily grown for winemaking, though they were also eaten fresh or dried into raisins for storage. Olives were cultivated almost exclusively for their oil, used for cooking, lighting, and religious anointing. The reference to a land "flowing with milk and honey" most likely refers to date honey, a thick syrup boiled down from dates, rather than honey from bees. Bee honey was a known delicacy, but date honey was the more common sweetener.
Dairy and Meat: Occasional Treats
Dairy products, mostly from sheep and goats, were consumed during the spring and summer. Fresh milk, which spoils quickly, was often made into thick sour milk (laban) or processed into butter or soft cheese to preserve it. While the biblical diet did not include the modern Western diet's heavy meat consumption, domesticated animals like goats and sheep were eaten, typically only for feasts, festivals, or honored guests. Only the wealthy, like King Solomon, had access to meat on a daily basis. Beef, venison, and various birds like pigeons and geese were also consumed, depending on status and availability. Kosher dietary laws strictly prohibited certain animals, such as pigs, camels, and animals without fins or scales, though archaeological evidence suggests compliance varied throughout history.
Comparison of Diets: Commoner vs. Elite
| Feature | Average Commoner's Diet | Wealthy Elite's Diet |
|---|---|---|
| Staples | Barley bread, lentils, chickpeas, and simple stews. | Wheat bread, refined flours, and richer sauces and broths. |
| Protein | Primarily legumes (lentils, beans). Meat was rare, reserved for special feasts. | Frequent access to meat (goat, sheep, beef, fowl) and richer fish. |
| Sweets | Date honey (dvash) and dried fruits like figs and raisins. | Access to rare imported spices and bee honey, in addition to date honey. |
| Beverages | Water, sour milk, and wine, often diluted. | High-quality, aged, and sometimes spiced wines. |
| Dietary Scope | Local and seasonal. Dependent on rainfall and harvest yields. | Access to imported goods, spices, and a wider variety of preserved foods. |
New Testament Shifts
By the time of the New Testament, the basic dietary staples remained similar, but attitudes towards food were shifting. The apostle Peter's vision in Acts 10, in which he is shown a sheet with all kinds of animals, is often interpreted by Christians as indicating that the Old Testament food laws were no longer binding for believers in the new covenant. Paul reinforced this view, stating, "everything God created is good, and nothing is to be rejected if it is received with thanksgiving" (1 Timothy 4:4). However, some Christian groups continue to follow Old Testament dietary laws based on their interpretation of scripture.
Conclusion: A Reflective and Resourceful Diet
From the Old Testament's strict dietary laws to the evolving perspectives in the New Testament, what was the diet in Bible times reflects a profound connection between food, culture, and religious belief. The menu was simple for most, built on hardy, local staples like bread and lentils, with meat reserved for joyful occasions. This diet was not only a source of sustenance but a continuous reminder of dependence on God’s provision, as seen in the annual harvests and celebratory feasts. The transition in the New Testament emphasized grace over legalism, highlighting that spiritual purity is not defined by the food we consume, a perspective that shaped the future of Christian dietary practices.
An interesting perspective on biblical history and its influence can be explored further in Joel A. Pugh and Douglas E. Neel’s book, The Food and Feasts of Jesus: Inside the World of First Century Fare, with Menus and Recipes.
