Sources of Shikimic Acid: What Contains This Important Compound?

January 12, 2026 •

4 min read

Historically, the main commercial source of shikimic acid was the Chinese star anise, a key ingredient used in the production of the antiviral drug Tamiflu. Today, while microbial fermentation is often used for large-scale production, this compound can still be found naturally in various plants and microorganisms.

Quick Summary

This article details the primary natural and commercial sources of shikimic acid, a compound essential for the synthesis of the antiviral medication oseltamivir (Tamiflu). It covers plants rich in the compound, such as star anise and pine needles, and explores its diverse applications beyond pharmaceuticals, including its use in cosmetics and health supplements.

Key Points

Star Anise is a Primary Natural Source: Chinese star anise (Illicium verum) has historically been the main source of shikimic acid for industrial use, yielding 3-7% from its dried fruit.
Pine Needles Contain Shikimic Acid: Studies show that pine needles from various species, particularly White Pine, are a significant and abundant natural source of the compound.
Microbial Fermentation is the Industrial Standard: Large-scale production of shikimic acid for pharmaceuticals like Tamiflu now relies heavily on engineered microorganisms, such as E. coli, for a stable and high-yield supply.
Used in Antiviral Drug Synthesis: The most notable application of shikimic acid is as the raw material for creating oseltamivir (Tamiflu).
Also Used in Cosmetics and Health Products: Shikimic acid is recognized for its exfoliating, anti-acne, and antioxidant properties, making it an ingredient in various cosmetic formulations.
Research Shows Gut Health Benefits: Recent studies indicate that shikimic acid may have positive effects on gut microbiota and can help regulate intestinal inflammation.

What is Shikimic Acid?

Shikimic acid is a hydroaromatic compound that plays a critical role in the shikimate pathway, a metabolic route found exclusively in plants and microorganisms. This pathway is essential for the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan), as well as many other aromatic compounds, including lignin and various alkaloids. Since this pathway does not exist in animals, understanding what contains shikimic acid and the pathway itself is crucial for several industries, particularly for developing herbicides and antibacterial agents that don't harm mammals.

Star Anise: The Traditional Source

For many years, the most well-known natural source of shikimic acid has been the Chinese star anise (Illicium verum), a star-shaped spice native to Southern China and Northern Vietnam. The fruit's dried pericarp contains a relatively high concentration of shikimic acid, ranging from 3% to 7%. This spice became highly sought after, especially during influenza pandemics, due to its role as a precursor for the synthesis of oseltamivir (Tamiflu), a key antiviral drug. However, the dependence on this plant for industrial quantities proved problematic due to low yield and unstable supply, leading to significant price fluctuations.

Alternative Plant Sources for Shikimic Acid

While star anise is the most famous source, researchers have identified several other plants that contain varying levels of shikimic acid. This search for alternatives was driven by the pharmaceutical industry's need for a more stable supply chain.

Pine Needles: In 2010, a University of Maine study highlighted that pine needles from several species of pine trees contain significant amounts of shikimic acid. Certain species, like the White Pine, have been noted for their content, making them a more abundant and easily accessible source than star anise.
Sweetgum Fruit: The seeds of the sweetgum tree (Liquidambar styraciflua), found widely in North America, contain approximately 1.5% shikimic acid. This discovery provided another potential source for extraction, though at a lower yield compared to star anise.
Bracken Fern: The young, furled fronds of the bracken fern, known as fiddleheads, also contain shikimic acid. While edible, they are often roasted to remove the acid, which has been associated with carcinogen-promoting activity.
Ginkgo Biloba: Studies have indicated the presence of shikimic acid in the leaves of the ginkgo biloba tree.
Some Berries and Grapes: Research has shown that some berries and grapes contain shikimic acid, though typically in lower concentrations than star anise or pine needles.

Biotechnological Production of Shikimic Acid

Due to the limitations and instability of sourcing from natural plant materials, biotechnological methods have been developed to produce shikimic acid on a larger, more controlled scale.

Engineered Microorganisms: Companies like Roche, which manufactures Tamiflu, have engineered microorganisms like the bacterium E. coli to overproduce shikimic acid through a fermentation process. This provides a stable and consistent supply for pharmaceutical needs.
Microbial Fermentation: Using genetically modified bacteria and yeast, the shikimate pathway can be manipulated to create a high-yield production system from renewable resources like glucose. This has largely replaced reliance on star anise for industrial-scale synthesis of oseltamivir.

Comparative Table of Shikimic Acid Sources


Source	Shikimic Acid Content (Approx.)	Type of Source	Notes
Chinese Star Anise	3-7% (dried fruit)	Natural Plant	Historically primary source for pharmaceuticals, supply can be unstable.
White Pine Needles	Significant, quantifiable	Natural Plant	More abundant and accessible than star anise, but extraction is newer.
Sweetgum Fruit Seeds	~1.5%	Natural Plant	Native to North America, offers an alternative natural source.
Bracken Fern Fiddleheads	Present, varying	Natural Plant	Contains the acid, but cooking is recommended due to potential carcinogen-promoting effects.
Engineered E. coli	High Yield (Fermentation)	Microbial (Biotechnological)	Primary industrial method, ensures a stable and scalable supply.
Other Plant Leaves (e.g., Ginkgo Biloba)	Trace amounts	Natural Plant	Content often too low for commercial extraction purposes.

The Purpose of Shikimic Acid in Nature and Industry

In plants and bacteria, shikimic acid is a crucial intermediate in the biosynthesis of essential compounds. For humans, since we lack the shikimate pathway, consuming shikimic acid doesn't have the same biosynthetic consequences. However, the compound and its derivatives are still valuable.

Industrially, the acid is most famously used as the starting material for synthesizing the anti-influenza drug, oseltamivir. Beyond that, its derivatives have been explored for various applications, including as herbicides and antibacterial agents. In the cosmetic industry, shikimic acid is recognized for its antioxidant, anti-acne, and exfoliating properties, often used in products for sensitive skin.

Recent Scientific Discoveries

Research continues to explore the potential of shikimic acid and its impact on biological systems. For instance, recent studies have shown its effects on gut microbiota and its anti-inflammatory properties. Researchers have found that shikimic acid can modulate inflammation and enhance the intestinal barrier in animal models. Such findings suggest broader potential for therapeutic applications beyond its established role in influenza medication synthesis.

Conclusion

Shikimic acid, a vital metabolic intermediate in plants and microorganisms, is most famously sourced from Chinese star anise and more recently, from engineered E. coli for pharmaceutical purposes. While many plants, including pine needles and sweetgum, contain this compound, their concentration varies. The importance of shikimic acid extends beyond its use in producing antiviral drugs like Tamiflu, with growing interest in its applications in cosmetics and its newly discovered impact on gut health. The shift toward microbial fermentation highlights a key advancement in biotechnology, securing a stable supply of this crucial compound for global demand.

Frequently Asked Questions

Chinese star anise is the most concentrated edible source, though it is typically used as a spice and not consumed in large quantities. Other plants, like some pine needles, contain it, but are not common food items.

It is important to use Chinese star anise (Illicium verum), as Japanese star anise (Illicium anisatum) is highly toxic. While safe for culinary use, consuming large amounts is not recommended and does not provide a therapeutic dose comparable to pharmaceutical derivatives.

No, consuming shikimic acid directly from plants like star anise does not provide a clinically significant antiviral effect against influenza. The acid is only a precursor used in a complex manufacturing process to create the antiviral drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu).

During influenza outbreaks, the demand for star anise surged because it was the primary natural source for manufacturing oseltamivir, the active ingredient in Tamiflu. This led to supply chain issues before synthetic production methods were perfected.

The shikimate pathway is a metabolic route in plants and microorganisms responsible for synthesizing aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. It is not present in animals, which is why we must obtain these amino acids from our diet.

Modern uses include the cosmetic industry for its exfoliating and anti-aging properties, and ongoing research is exploring its potential for regulating gut health and as a precursor for other pharmaceuticals.

While generally considered safe, some studies have associated shikimic acid from bracken fern with potential carcinogen-promoting effects, though not as an initiating agent. The safety and side effects depend on the source and processing.